Article 91 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice criminalizes acts of insubordination toward NCOs, Petty Officers, and Warrant Officers. This includes:

• striking or assaulting an NCO/PO/WO
• willfully disobeying an NCO/PO/WO
• treating an NCO/PO/WO with contempt or disrespect

While less severe than Article 90 (disobeying a commissioned officer), Article 91 cases are among the most emotionally charged and aggressively pursued offenses in military justice. Commands treat disrespect or defiance toward NCOs and petty officers as direct threats to discipline, morale, and authority.

Article 91 charges frequently arise in environments involving:

• stressful field training
• late-night barracks or liberty incidents
• alcohol or emotional disputes
• shipboard or aviation operations
• traffic stops or police interactions
• mental health episodes
• miscommunication during chaotic events

On Florida installations, Article 91 charges often come from:

• barracks tensions in Jacksonville, Pensacola, and Tampa
• shipboard arguments while docked in port
• aviation training disputes with Warrant Officers
• alcohol-related incidents in Florida nightlife districts
• confusion during hurricane evacuation or emergency response

Many Article 91 cases stem from misunderstandings, emotional outbursts, or conflicting accounts—not true insubordination. This page explains Article 91’s legal elements, common government errors, real-world scenarios, and Gonzalez & Waddington’s defense strategies.

Article 91 – Full Legal Breakdown

Article 91 covers three categories of misconduct:

• Striking or assaulting an NCO/PO/WO
• Willfully disobeying the lawful order of an NCO/PO/WO
• Using disrespectful or contemptuous language/behavior toward an NCO/PO/WO

Element 1 – Status of the Alleged Victim

The government must prove the alleged victim was:

• a Noncommissioned Officer
• a Petty Officer
• a Warrant Officer

AND that the accused knew (or reasonably should have known) the person held that rank.

Element 2 – A Lawful Order (For Disobedience Cases)

For disobedience under Article 91, prosecutors must prove:

• a specific order was issued
• the order was lawful
• the accused knew of the order
• the accused willfully disobeyed it

Element 3 – Disrespect

Disrespect includes:

• language (“screw you,” “you can’t tell me what to do”)
• gestures (eye-rolling, laughing, walking away)
• tone (sarcastic, mocking, threatening)
• refusal to acknowledge authority

But context matters: stress, intoxication, mental health crisis, or chaos often explain behavior that was not deliberate disrespect.

Element 4 – Striking or Assaulting

Article 91 covers physical acts such as:

• pushing
• grabbing
• slapping
• shoving
• throwing objects
• aggressive posturing

What Article 91 Is NOT

• raising your voice during an argument
• asserting your rights
• walking away to de-escalate
• refusing unlawful orders
• miscommunication caused by noise or stress
• mental health episodes impairing judgment
• accidental physical contact

Maximum Punishments Under Article 91

• Striking an NCO/PO/WO: up to 10 years confinement + dishonorable discharge
• Willful disobedience: up to 2 years confinement
• Disrespect: up to 1 year confinement

Article 91 charges can permanently destroy careers and reputations, even when the underlying behavior was minor, misunderstood, or exaggerated.

Common Situations That Lead to Article 91 Charges

These scenarios reflect how easily routine leadership interactions, emotional stress, or chaotic events escalate into Article 91 cases.

• A soldier mutters under his breath during a stressful inspection. The NCO hears part of it and claims “disrespect.”
• A Marine tries to walk away from an argument to cool down. The sergeant interprets it as defiance.
• A sailor accidentally bumps an LPO while intoxicated. The LPO claims assault.
• An Airman refuses a task because he is on a medical profile. The NCO claims insubordination.
• A service member raises their hands defensively during a heated confrontation. An NCO claims the gesture was an attempt to strike.
• A Coast Guardsman misunderstands a verbal order in a loud engine room. CGIS charges willful disobedience.
• A soldier snaps “I’m tired of this” after being corrected repeatedly. CID charges disrespect.
• A Marine in a Florida bar argues with a sergeant over personal issues. NCIS claims disrespect toward an NCO in public.
• An Air Force Warrant Officer gives rapid-fire instructions during a flight-line emergency. An Airman misses part of it and is accused of disobedience.
• A sailor records a confrontation with a petty officer for safety. The command claims the act itself was disrespectful.
• A junior Marine gestures dismissively while holding a phone. The sergeant interprets it as contempt.
• A service member in mental health crisis becomes emotional during counseling. Leadership mislabels it as insubordination.
• A soldier’s profanity-laced venting in the barracks is overheard and attributed to the wrong sergeant, leading to Article 91.
• A junior Airman questions the legality of an order. OSI treats this as deliberate disrespect.
• A sailor walks past a petty officer without saluting because his hands are full. The PO claims disrespect.
• A soldier leaves the area briefly for a medical issue. The NCO claims the soldier intentionally departed without permission.
• A Marine tries to explain he did not hear the order. The sergeant assumes attitude and charges insubordination.
• A Coast Guardsman involved in a domestic dispute is instructed by the PO to “calm down.” He says “leave me alone,” which CGIS treats as contemptuous.
• A service member physically separates himself during a tense argument. The NCO claims attempted assault.
• An Airman laughs nervously during disciplinary counseling. The supervisor claims mocking behavior.

Most Article 91 charges arise from emotion—not malice. The defense must show the difference.

Common Government Misinterpretations in Article 91 Cases

• Confusing tone with disrespect.
• Assuming all gestures mean contempt.
• Misinterpreting defensive movements as assault.
• Treating silence or hesitation as defiance.
• Ignoring medical or mental health issues.
• Assuming all orders were lawful, clear, and heard.

Florida-Specific Misinterpretations

• NCO–junior disputes in nightlife districts become criminalized.
• Shipboard noise leads to misunderstood orders.
• Aviation commands treat questioning as defiance.
• Training environments amplify emotional reactions.
• Hurricane stress or evacuation confusion becomes “disobedience.”

Real World Article 91 Military Scenarios (Expanded Operational Examples)

These real-case patterns demonstrate how quickly a misunderstanding, emotional exchange, or momentary lapse in judgment becomes an Article 91 charge. Many involve chaotic conditions, conflicting instructions, or misinterpretation of tone or body language.

• A soldier walking to formation with headphones on does not hear an NCO yell his name. The NCO interprets this as “willful ignoring,” leading to an insubordination investigation.
• A junior Marine suffering a panic attack walks away from a staff sergeant during a heated counseling session. The sergeant claims “walking away from an NCO” is contemptuous.
• A sailor returning from liberty in Jacksonville, slightly intoxicated, tries to defuse a confrontation by backing away. The LPO claims he “raised his hands aggressively.” NCIS treats it as attempted assault.
• A service member with PTSD startles during a loud confrontation and instinctively pushes an NCO who gets too close. Command calls it “striking an NCO.”
• An Airman questions a Warrant Officer’s safety-related instruction during a flight-line exercise. OSI interprets it as defiance rather than legitimate concern.
• A recruit in basic training fails to respond instantly to a drill instructor’s order due to exhaustion. The DI assumes defiance and reports insubordination.
• A Coast Guardsman attempts to mediate a conflict between two shipmates. A petty officer misreads the tone and claims he was being “smart.” CGIS charges disrespect.
• A Marine rolls his eyes after an NCO makes a sarcastic remark. The NCO reports “blatant disrespect.”
• During a barracks fire alarm, a soldier is yelled at by multiple leaders simultaneously. He freezes and doesn’t move. CID interprets it as refusal to follow instructions.
• A petty officer grabs a sailor’s arm to get his attention. The sailor reflexively pulls away. The PO claims the sailor “jerked back aggressively.”
• A service member says, “Can you please stop yelling at me?” An NCO interprets this as talking back.
• During hurricane-prep operations in Florida, a troop misunderstands staggered muster times. Leadership believes he intentionally skipped muster.
• A service member in crisis requests to see mental health. An NCO assumes he is “making excuses” and claims insubordination when he leaves the room.
• After being corrected multiple times, a soldier mutters “whatever.” The sergeant takes it personally and escalates to Article 91.
• An intoxicated junior enlisted member stumbles into a petty officer at a club. The PO claims he was shoved on purpose.
• A Marine refuses to perform heavy lifting due to a medical profile. The NCO hadn’t checked the profile and interprets the refusal as disobedience.
• An Airman gives a safety-related recommendation during a maintenance task. The Warrant Officer interprets it as backtalk.
• A soldier who is hard of hearing does not respond to an instruction. The NCO assumes deliberate disrespect.
• During a training exercise, multiple leaders give conflicting instructions. The accused follows the safest option but is accused by one leader of insubordination.
• A Coast Guardsman in a crowded, noisy engine room cannot hear instructions. CGIS charges deliberate disregard of orders.

Article 91 cases almost always stem from chaos, emotion, confusion, or misinterpretation—not intentional defiance.

How Article 91 Investigations Are Conducted

Article 91 investigations frequently suffer from confirmation bias, emotional narratives, and rank-driven assumptions. Investigators often presume the NCO/PO/WO is right and the junior enlisted member is wrong, regardless of evidence.

The “Authority Bias” Problem

Investigators routinely:

• accept the senior’s version as truth
• discount junior enlisted testimony
• ignore tone, context, and environmental chaos
• treat any defense as “excuses”

The Misinterpretation of Tone

Many Article 91 cases hinge on tone, but:

• stress changes tone
• fatigue affects speech
• cultural differences shape communication
• anxiety causes defensive or shaky tone
• sarcasm is often misread as contempt

Common Evidence Used (Often Incorrectly)

• partial text messages
• snippets of video without context
• witnesses influenced by NCO loyalty
• sworn statements drafted by investigators
• command investigations with a predetermined outcome
• selective quoting of conversations

CID / NCIS / OSI / CGIS Patterns in Article 91 Cases

• CID: accepts NCO versions without challenge, especially in Army units with strict discipline cultures.
• NCIS: aggressively forwards any “disrespect” case from ships or barracks.
• OSI: overanalyzes digital messages, often missing emotional or mental health context.
• CGIS: misinterprets loud shipboard communication as intentional defiance.

How Emotional Reactions Become Criminalized

Investigators often turn:

• crying
• freezing
• shaking
• defensive posture
• walking away to de-escalate

into allegations of contempt or attempted assault.

How Florida-Specific Conditions Create Article 91 Misunderstandings

Florida bases produce unique patterns:

• barracks conflicts after alcohol consumption
• misinterpretation of behavior during hurricane stress
• shipboard noise drowning out instructions
• aviation units where Warrant Officers give complex instructions rapidly
• junior members overwhelmed by high-tempo training environments

These circumstances lead to innocent conduct being reframed as insubordination.

How Gonzalez & Waddington Defend Article 91 Cases

Article 91 cases almost always rest on misinterpretation. The prosecution’s narrative typically relies on emotion, rank bias, misunderstandings, and partial accounts rather than true insubordination. Gonzalez & Waddington dismantle these cases by exposing the psychological, environmental, and communication-based realities that shaped the accused’s behavior.

Step 1 – Destroy the Government’s Claim of Willful Disobedience or Disrespect

Article 91 requires intent. The defense shows the accused’s actions resulted from:

• stress or panic
• heat exhaustion or fatigue
• alcohol impairment (affects tone, perception, and memory)
• mental health symptoms (anxiety, PTSD, depression)
• misheard instructions
• miscommunication in noisy environments
• conflicting or confusing orders
• shock, overload, or emotional shutdown

These factors undermine “willfulness”—the cornerstone of Article 91 prosecutions.

Step 2 – Challenge NCO, PO, and WO Credibility

NCOs and Petty Officers are not perfect narrators. The defense exposes:

• exaggeration fueled by anger, ego, or embarrassment
• misinterpreting tone or body language
• failure to follow training or leadership doctrine
• selective memory or inconsistent statements
• retaliatory motives (especially after a subordinate complains)
• coordinated statements among NCOs trying to “hold the line”

Step 3 – Emphasize Environmental and Operational Chaos

Many Article 91 incidents occur in high-stress, noisy, or confusing spaces:

• the flight line
• the engine room
• the barracks during a fight
• nighttime liberty incidents
• hurricane evacuation or weather emergencies
• combat training ranges

These environments make miscommunication common and deliberate disrespect unlikely.

Step 4 – Attack the Alleged “Lawfulness” and Clarity of Orders

For a valid Article 91 disobedience charge, the prosecution must show:

• a lawful order
• a clear order
• a direct order
• a specific order

Many orders fail these requirements due to:

• vague language
• rapid-fire instructions
• non-verbal cues misread as orders
• instructions not heard by the accused
• orders conflicting with medical profiles
• lack of authority from the issuing NCO

Step 5 – Reframe the Accused’s Body Language and Tone

The government often treats normal or defensive body language as “contempt.” The defense shows:

• nervous laughter does not equal mockery
• eye-rolling is emotional—not criminal
• shaky hands or raised arms can be self-protection
• walking away can be de-escalation, not defiance
• crying or shutting down indicates stress, not contempt

This is especially true in young troops, trainees, or members under pressure.

Step 6 – Highlight the Leadership Culture and Command Climate

Article 91 cases often arise in command environments where:

• NCOs are overly aggressive
• toxic leadership is common
• senior enlisted encourage strict discipline
• junior troops are afraid to speak up
• unit turmoil leads to exaggerated accusations

Step 7 – Leverage Witness Testimony to Expose Bias and Exaggeration

Witnesses often:

• did not hear the full conversation
• only saw a small part of the interaction
• were influenced by rank hierarchy
• repeat narratives fed to them by leadership
• misinterpret gestures in noisy or chaotic environments

Step 8 – Use Video and Digital Evidence Correctly

Video, CCTV, Snapchat clips, and bodycam are often taken out of context. The defense:

• requests the full footage
• examines the lead-up and aftermath
• shows differences between accusations and reality
• demonstrates confusion, not contempt

Step 9 – Florida-Specific Defense Strategies

Florida generates Article 91 cases shaped by:

• noise and chaos at busy ports
• crowded nightlife districts causing misinterpretation
• multi-service environments with mixed leadership styles
• heat and fatigue impacting behavior
• stress during hurricane preparations or evacuations
• aviation and shipboard tension leading to emotional exchanges

These factors often explain the accused’s conduct better than any prosecution narrative.

Pro Tips for Service Members Facing Article 91 Allegations

These steps help preserve your rights and strengthen your case immediately.

• Do not speak to CID, NCIS, OSI, or CGIS without counsel.
• Preserve all texts, messages, and social media posts related to the incident.
• Identify witnesses who observed the communication or tone.
• Document stress, medical issues, or mental health symptoms that affected your behavior.
• Write down your exact recollection quickly while fresh.
• Preserve videos if the incident occurred in barracks or public areas.
• Request your NCO’s authority, orders, and justification in writing.
• Do not delete anything—deletions look like guilt.
• Record environmental details (noise, fatigue, heat).
• Stay calm and professional around your chain of command.
• Do not apologize without legal advice—apologies get twisted as admissions.
• Gather character statements from peers and seniors.
• Document conflicts or inconsistencies in leadership behavior.
• Explain cultural or communication differences that influenced tone.
• Preserve medical profiles or restrictions that affected compliance.
• Note any alcohol presence or conflicting orders from others.
• Prepare for exaggerated claims—rank dynamics distort perception.
• Let your lawyer manage all communication with investigators.

Call to Action for Article 91 Insubordination Allegations

Article 91 allegations can instantly destroy a service member’s career and reputation. They are often based on misunderstandings, emotional exchanges, tone misinterpretation, or leadership overreaction. Because these cases rely heavily on perception—and because rank bias favors the accuser—you need a defense team that understands the psychology of military communication, the reality of unit culture, and the flaws in Article 91 investigations.

Gonzalez & Waddington have defended service members at all ranks—across all branches—in complex Article 91 cases. From physical confrontations to verbal misunderstandings, we know how to expose false narratives, challenge credibility, and show the truth.

To begin building your defense now, visit our Florida military defense hub at https://ucmjdefense.com/florida-military-defense-lawyers/.

For more UCMJ article guides, return to UCMJ Articles 77–134 Guide.